maaheshwara suutraaNi

The shiva suutras or maaheshwara suutras (माहेश्वर सूत्राणि) are fourteen verses that organize the alphabet of samskRutam, as referred to in paaNini's aShTaadhyaayI, the foundation text for Sanskrit grammar.  They are called shiva suutra-s because they are said to have been revealed to paaNini by Lord shiva himself!  The below verse says -

नृत्तावसाने नटराज राजः ननाद ढक्कां नवपञ्चवारम् ।

उद्धर्तुकामः सनकादि सिद्धान् एतद्विमर्शे शिवसूत्रजालम् ॥

At the end of the cosmic dance, Lord naTaraaja (shiva) sounded his Dhamaru 9 + 5 (=14) times.  With an intent to bless the sages sanaka and others, this web of shiva sUtras was deliberated.

It was nothing but the alphabet of samskRutam, but arranged in a different order!  Below is what sounded out of Lord shiva's Dhamaru -

१.  अ इ उ ण्

२.  ऋ लृ क्

३.  ए ओ ङ्

४.  ऐ औ च्

५.  ह य व र ट्

६.  ल ण्

७.  ञ म ङ ण न म्

८.  झ भ ञ्

९.  घ ढ ध ष्

१०. ज ब ग ड द श्

११. ख फ छ ठ थ च ट त व्

१२. क प य्

१३. श ष स र्

१४. ह ल्

1.  a i u N

2.  Ru lRu k

3.  e o ~g

4.  ai au ch

5.  ha ya va ra T

6.  la N

7.  ~ja ma ~ga Na na m

8.  jha bha ~j

9.  gha Dha dha Sh

10. ja ba ga Da da sh

11. kha pha Cha Tha tha ca Ta ta v

12. ka pa y

13. sha Sha sa r

14. ha l

The half alphabet in the suutra are called anubandha-s.  One anubandha appears at the end of each suutra.  These anubandha-s, along with one alphabet, makes a pratyaahaara.  Ex - अच्, हल्  

A pratyaahaara when expanded, stands for all the alphabet beginning from the first alphabet till the anubandha in the order of the maaheshwara suutra, minus the anubandha-s that come before the anubandha in the pratyaahaara.  To understand this better, see the expansion of the above examples.

अच् stands for - अ इ उ ऋ लृ ए ओ ऐ औ (च्) 

हल्  - ह य व र ल ञ म ङ ण न झ भ घ ढ ध ज ब ग ड द ख फ छ ठ थ च ट त क प श ष स ह (ल्) 

paaNini has written the entire aShTaadhyaayi using these pratyaahaara-s mainly.  All the rules of the samskRutam grammar have been defined perfectly!  Only one alphabet (ह) and one anubandha (ण्) repeat through out these 14 suutras and for good reason.  There are times when paaNini needs to refer to a set of alphabet with such a repetition.  Hence the redundancy.   Otherwise, it is said that there is not a single syllable that is said redundantly in the aShTaadhyaayi.  

One who is learning samskRutam should certainly have an idea about maaheshwara suutra-s are and what they are.  

So, happy learning!

matup pratyayaantas

matup pratyayaanta-s

*तद् अस्य अस्ति इति मतुप्
One who has - is a matup

Words like 

हनुमान् (hanumaan)

श्रीमान् (shrImaan)

बुद्धिमान् (buddhimaan)

विद्यावान् (vidyaavaan)

are examples.  They denote meanings as 'one who has ___'.  (chin, wealth, intellect, knowledge, respectively in the above words.)

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padam

padam (पदम्) - word

What is a word?

     * सुप्‌तिङ्गन्तं पदम् -  patan~jali  

        That which ends with a sup or ti~ng pratyaya is a word

That which ends with a 

• सुप् प्रत्यय is a सुबन्त.  Any noun would be called a सुबन्त.  They are obtained by adding सुप् pratyaya-s to a प्रातिपदिकम्-s.  They will have 7+1 vibhakti-s(cases) and 3 vachana-s (numbers).  This gives them 24 forms in their shabda rUpa.  There are 3 different linga-s (genders) in सुबन्त-s.
• तिङ्ग् प्रत्यय is a तिङ्गन्त . Any verb would be called a तिङ्गन्त .  They are obtained by adding तिङ्ग् pratyaya-s to a धातु.  The verbs have 3 puruSha-s (persons) and 3 vachana-s (numbers).  There are 10 different kinds of लकार-s (tenses).  Also, there are two different types धातु categories - आत्मनेपद and परस्मैपद.

The 7+1 vibhakti-s (cases) are - 

• प्रथमा
• सम्बोधना प्रथमा
• द्वितीया
• तृतिया
• चतुर्थी
• पञ्चमी
• षष्टी
• सप्तमी 

The 3 vachana-s (numbers) are - 

• एकवचनम् (singular)
• द्विवचनम् (dual)
• बहुवचनम् (plural)

The 3 puruSha-s (persons) are -

• प्रथम पुरुष (Third person in English grammar)
• मध्यम पुरुष (Second person in English grammar)
• उत्तम पुरुष (First person in English grammar)

The 10 lakaara-s (tenses)

1.   6 of them are कालवाचक-s (indicate tenses)

• लट् - वर्तमानः (present) -  भवति
• लङ् - अनद्यतनभूतः (past imperfect) - अभवत्
• लुङ् - भूतः (past) - अभूत्
• लिट् - परोक्षभूतः (past perfect) - बभूव
• लुट् - अनद्यतनभविष्यत् (first future) - भविता
• लृट् - भविष्यत् (second future) - भविष्यति 

2.   4 of them are प्रकार-बोधक-s (indicate moods)

• लोट् - आज्ञा (imperative) - भवतु
• विधिलिङ् (potential) - विधिः - भवेत्
• लाशीर्लिङ् - आशीः (benediction) - भूयात्
• लृङ् - सङ्केतः (conditional) - अभविष्यत् 

(There is one more lakaara called the लेट् that is used mainly in the vedic literature.  Hence it is not accounted in the above 10 lakaara-s that are in usage.)

An easy verse form to remember them -

लट् वर्तमाने लेट् वेदे भूते लुङ् लङ् लिटस्तथा ।

विध्याशिषौ लिङ्लोटौ लुट् लृट् लृङ् च भविष्यतः ॥

A few other rules regarding words and their usage -

     * अपदं न प्रयुञ्जेत  -  patan~jali  

        Do not use that which is not a word

     * प्रत्ययलोपे प्रत्यय लक्षणम्  - paaNini  

         In the absence of pratyaya, the characteristics of pratyaya apply

jashtva sandhi

jashtva sandhi (जश्त्व सन्धि) -

When the 1st vyanjana (consonant) of any 'varga' faces a vowel, soft consonant (except nasal (anunaasika)), the consonant is replaced by the 3rd vyanjana of its respective varga.

The examples below will make it more clearer -

वाक् + अर्थ = वागर्थ
क् + अ = ग

सम्यक् + उत्तरम् = सम्यगुत्तरम्
क् + उ = गु

अच् + अन्तम् = अजन्तम्
च् + अ = ज

कश्चित् + उद्यानवनम् = कश्चिदुद्यानवनम्
त् + उ = दु

कुर्यात् + रामः = कुर्याद्रामः
त् + रा + द्रा

सुप् + अन्तम् = सुबन्तम्
प् + अ = ब

visarga sandhi

visarga sandhi (विसर्ग सन्धि)

There are 4 + 1 types of visarga sandhi-s

a) visarga becomes उकार
When the first word ends with अः and the second words starts with a soft consonant (the last 3 vargIya vyanjanas of all 5 vargas) or अ, the visarga becomes उ.  Together, अ + उ = ओ.  It will be more clear from the examples below -
अधः + गतिः
   अ + : + ग
      ओ  + ग
= अधोगतिः

शिवः + अहम्

   अ + : + अ

     ओ   + ऽ (avagraha chinham, stands for 'अ')

= शिवोऽहम् 

कुतः गतः 

अ + : + ग
   ओ  + ग

कुतोगतः 

b) visarga becomes लोप

• When the first word ends in आः and the second begins with a vowel or soft consonant, the visarga disappears (लोप)

अश्वाः आगच्छन्ति
        : disappears (लोप)
अश्वा आगच्छन्ति

गजाः गताः
        : disappears (लोप)
गजा गताः

• When अः is followed by any vowel other than अ visarga disappears

कुतः आगतः
      : disappears (लोप)
कुत आगतः

• When सः, एषः faced with any alphabet except hrasva 'अ, the visarga is dropped

सः इच्छति 

        : disappears (लोप)

स इच्छति 

सः कुमारः

        : disappears (लोप)

स कुमारः

सः वत्सः 

        : disappears (लोप)

स वत्सः

• when भोः is faced with any vowel or soft consonants, the visarga is dropped

भोः शम्भु

        : disappears (लोप)

भो शम्भु

भोः नमस्ते

        : disappears (लोप)
भो नमस्ते

c) visarga becomes रेफ

• any visarga other than अः/आः (इः/ईः/उः/ऊः/...../औः) followed by a vowel or soft consonant, becomes a र् 

हरिः + इयम्
   इः + इ
   इर् + इ
हरिरियम्

पतिः + आगच्छति
   इः + आ
   इर् + आ
पतिरागच्छति

• In such a case, if the second word starts with र्, then the previous vowel becomes long 

भ्रातुः + रक्षति
     तुः + र
     तू  + र
भ्रातू रक्षति

d) visarga becomes स/श/ष-कार

• visarga followed by त् /थ् /स् becomes स्

तरुः + तत्र

  रुः + त

  रुस् + त

तरुस्तत्र

तरुः + साक्षी

  रुः + स

  रुस् + स

तरुस्साक्षी / तरुः साक्षी (the sandhi is optional for second word beginning with स्)

• च् /छ् /श् becomes श्

रामः + चेत्

   मः + च्

   मश् + च्

रामश्चेत्

रामः + शेते

   मः + श्

   मश् + श्

रामश्शेते / रामः शेते (the sandhi is optional for second word beginning with श्)

• ट् /ठ् /ष् becomes ष्

क्लिष्टः + टवर्गः

     टः + ट्

     टष् + ट्

क्लिष्टष्टवर्गः

पुत्रः + षण्मुखः

   रः + ष्

   रष् + ष्

पुत्रष्षण्मुखः / पुत्रः षण्मुखः  (the sandhi is optional for second word beginning with ष्) 

e) visarga followed by क/ख, प/फ, क्ष

• visarga preceding क/ख has to be pronounced as a जिह्वामूलीय (jihvaamUlIya - back of the tongue) 

काकः काकः

काकೱ काकः

• visarga preceding प/फ has to be pronounced as a उपद्मानीय (upadmaanIya - breathed at) 

पिकः पिकः

पिकೱ पिकः 

• visarga preceding क्ष HAS to be pronounced completely as a visarga itself!

सुखः + क्षमी

सुखः, क्षमी

उद्भवः + क्षोभणः 

उद्भवः, क्षोभणः 

yaN sandhi

yaN sandhi (यण् सन्धि)

     * इको यणचि 

        इकस्य अचिपरे यण् स्यात् 

When इ, उ, ऋ, लृ are followed by dissimilar vowels, they become य्, व्, र्, ल् respectively.

Ex:

यदि + अपि = यद्यपि

तर्हि + अपि = त्रह्यपि 

मधु + अरिः = मध्वरिः 

गुरु + आशीर्वादम् = गुर्वाशीर्वादम्

पितृ + अंशः = पित्रंशः 

मातृ + आदेशः = मात्रादेशः

लृ + आकारः = लाकारः 

ल्रु + आकृतिः = लाकृतिः 

vRuddhi sandhi

vRuddhi sandhi (वृद्धि सन्धि)

     * वृद्धिरादैच् 

When the vowels अ, आ and ए, ओ they become ऐ, औ respectively.  This is one of the simpler forms of vRuddhi.  The other forms in this sandhi will be dealt as and when required.

Ex:

एक + एकम् = एकैकम्

राम + एव = रामैव

वन + ओषधिः = वनौषधिः 

रक्त + ओष्टः = रक्तौष्टः 

guNa sandhi

guNa sandhi (गुण सन्धि )

This sandhi happens among the following vowels -

     अ, ए, ओ

    * आद्गुणः 

अ + इ = ए

अ + उ = ओ

अ + ऋ = अर्

अ + लृ = अल् 

Few examples, 

रमा + ईशः = रमेशः 

अर्ध + इन्दुः = अर्धेन्दुः 

गङ्गा + उदकम् = गङ्गोदकम्

हित + उपदेशः = हितोपदेशः 

savarNa-dIrgha sandhi

     * अकः सवर्णे दीर्घः 

When the ending swara of a word faces the same swara at the beginning of the next word, they together become the long form of that particular swara.

Ex:

न + अस्ति = नास्ति

न्+अ + अ = ना

कुत्र + अपि = कुत्रापि

त्+र्+अ + अ = त्रा

कपि + ईश = कपीश

प्+इ + ई = पी

na + asti = naasti

n+a + a = naa

kutra + api = kutraapi

t+r+a + a = traa

kapi + Isha = kapIsha

p+i + I = pI

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Some visarga pronunciation rules

a.  When a visarga faces a 'ka/kha' or 'pa/pha', it is pronounced as a half aspirant (अर्धविसर्ग)

But there is a difference in the way these two are pronounced, as in the origination of the sound.

• रामः करोति  is pronounced as रामह्-करोति (visarga here becomes a जिह्वामूलीय jihvaamuuleeya)
• रामः पश्यति is pronounced as रामह्-पश्यति (visarga here becomes a उपध्मानीय upadhmaaneeya)

raamaH karoti  is pronounced as raamah-karoti

raamaH pashyati is pronounced as raamah-pashyati

To differentiate between जिह्वामूलीय and उपध्मानीय, think of aspirating air while keeping the mouth ready to pronounce the consonant coming next!  This makes it very easy to pronounce these two kinds of visargas correctly.

The best verse to differentiate these two pronunciations is: 

काकः कृष्णः पिकः कृष्णः को भेदः पिककाकयोः ।

वसन्तकाले संप्राप्ते काकः काकः पिकः पिकः ॥

- कुवलयानन्द

kaakaH kRuShNaH pikaH kRuShNaH ko bhedaH pikakaakayoH ।

vasantakaale saMpraapte kaakaH kaakaH pikaH pikaH ॥

- kuvalayaananda

The audio below will help notice the difference better! 

b. When a visarga faces a 'sa', it becomes a 's'.  When it faces a 'sha' it becomes a 'sh'.

• रामः सखः is pronounced as रामस्सखः
• रामः शेते is pronounced as रामश्शेते

raamaH sakhaH is pronounced as raamassakhaH

raamaH shete is pronounced as raamashshete

c.  When a visarga faces a 'kSha', it shall remain as a full visarga and HAS to be pronounced fully.

• रामः क्षमी is pronounced as रामः, क्षमी

raamaH kShamI is pronounced as raamaha kShamI.  Popular examples for this are - दक्षिणः, क्षमिणांवरः (VS shloka 98), उद्भवः, क्षोभणो देव: (VS poorva-nyaasa), समदुःखसुखः, क्षमी (BG ch 12, shloka 13)

d.  Visarga appearing before any of these consonants - ग्/घ्, ज्/झ्, ड्/ढ्, द्/ध्, ब्/भ्, न्/म्/ङ्/ञ्/ण्, य्/व्/र्/ल्/ह् - changes to the 'O' sound

• रामः गच्छति becomes रामो गच्छति 

raamaH gachChati becomes raamo gachChati

e.  As a general rule - keep in mind, the pronunciation of the visarga (H) is not a fixed sound. It depends on the syllable following it as well as the syllable preceding it.  If it is the last word (with no following syllable), then, it will mirror the previous vowel's pronunciation.

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1st and 2nd case - neuter gender

The neuter gender nouns assume the same forms in both 1st and 2nd cases.  The meaning of the word in a sentence is deduced based on the context it is being used, whether it is the subject or the object!

(1st case is used when the noun is the subject.  2nd case is used when the noun is the object.)

anunaasika Rule

The rules pertaining to writing the nasal consonants (anunaasika-s) in between words -

• The nasal consonant present in between the words depends solely on the alphabet that follows it.  The nasal consonant has to be one from the same varga of the consonant that follows, if it is a vargIya vyanjana (a grouped consonant).  Ex.  

1. कङ्कण (ka~nkaNa - bangle)
2. चञ्चल (cha~nchala - movable, unsteady)
3. अण्ड (aNDa - egg)
4. तन्तु (tantu - cord, thread)
5. कम्पन (kampana - trembling)

Notice how the nasal consonants (anunaasika-s) are followed by consonants of their own vargas.  It is not correct to write कन्कण, चन्चल, अंड, तंतु, कंपन, etc.

'ra' Rule

The rules pertaining to writing 'ra' -

• If a र् comes before another consonant, then it is represented as 'a half sickle on top of the following consonant'.  Ex. र्क, as in तर्क (logic)

• If a full र comes after any other half consonant, it takes the form of 'a slash under the consonant preceding it'.  Ex. क्र तक्र (curd).

anuswaara Rule

• An important rule while writing  the anuswaara, the अं at the end of any word is that, if the following word starts with a consonant, it goes up as in अं.  But if the following word starts with a vowel, then the dot on top becomes a 'half म् (m)' as in अम्.  For example,
  
  अयं हरिः (ayaM hariH)
  

  अयम् अरिः (ayam ariH) Also, it stays as a 'half म् (m)' at the end of the sentence (since there is no following consonant).